'Medical Memoir' is a Health & Me series that delves into some of the most intriguing medical histories and unveils how medical innovations have evolved over time. Here, we trace the early stages of all things health, whether a vaccine, a treatment, a pill, or a cure.

With 7000 cases of chikungunya diagnosed in China, strict measures have been taken to ensure the outbreak doesn’t spread. The health officials have employed ‘COVID’ style restrictions to ensure the disease remains contained, with elephant mosquito who prey on Aedes mosquitoes, drones that identify mosquito breeding sites as well as people wearing masks are fogging parks and streets with insecticides.

Chikungunya is a viral disease spread by mosquitoes that causes fever, a rash, and severe joint pain. The name comes from a word that means “disease that bends up the joints,” describing the painful, stooped posture of those infected. The virus, known as CHIKV, is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes and can cause severe complications, though it is rarely fatal.

However, this is not the first time history has witnessed Chikungunya, in fact the timeline of its identification stretches as far as the 1950s.

Origins of Chikungunya

According to the World Health Organization, chikungunya is a viral disease spread by mosquitoes. Its name comes from a language in Tanzania and means "that which bends up the joints," referring to the severe joint pain that can cause people to stoop over. The virus, called CHIKV, is related to the O'nyong nyong virus and was first identified in Tanzania in 1952. While typically not fatal, it can cause severe fever, rash, and long-lasting joint pain, with some cases leading to heart, liver, or neurological problems.

How Chikungunya Spreads and Transfers?

The primary way chikungunya is transmitted is through the bite of infected female Aedes mosquitoes, particularly the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus species. These are the same mosquitoes that spread other diseases like dengue. In Africa, the virus is believed to be maintained in a cycle involving wild primates and various forest-dwelling Aedes mosquitoes. However, in urban areas, especially in Asia and elsewhere, the virus is spread mainly by mosquitoes living in cities.

The Journal of Infectious Diseases explains that over time, different genetic types (genotypes) of the chikungunya virus have emerged, including the Asian, West African, and East/Central/South African (ECSA) genotypes. A new variant, the Indian Ocean Lineage (IOL), appeared in 2004 and caused severe epidemics, mainly in Asia. A key mutation in this new variant, known as E1-A226V, made the virus much more effective at being transmitted by the widespread Aedes albopictus mosquito. This enhanced transmission is a major reason why the virus has spread so quickly to new regions, including parts of Europe and the Americas, which have also seen outbreaks in recent years.

Historical Timeline of Global Chikungunya Outbreak

For centuries, the virus was mainly found in parts of Africa. It was first officially identified in Tanzania in the 1950s. Over the next few decades, it also appeared in Asia, often causing outbreaks that were sometimes confused with dengue fever.

Before 2004

The disease's global spread took a dramatic turn in 2004 when a new and more infectious strain of the virus appeared in Kenya. This strain had a special mutation that made it much better at being transmitted by the Aedes albopictus mosquito. Because this mosquito species is so widespread, this new strain was able to travel and cause huge epidemics in new places.

2004 and Beyond

The new strain quickly spread to islands in the Indian Ocean, then to India and Southeast Asia. In 2007, it reached Europe, causing an outbreak in Italy. By 2013, the virus had made its way to the Americas, starting in the Caribbean and then rapidly spreading throughout North, Central, and South America. This was a major event because the people in the Americas had no prior immunity to the virus, making them very vulnerable to infection.

Today, chikungunya has been reported in more than 110 countries. The combination of a highly infectious virus strain and the widespread presence of mosquito carriers has made it a significant public health problem around the world. Scientists continue to monitor the virus's spread and look for ways to control its mosquito vectors to reduce the burden of this painful disease.

The virus has since caused outbreaks in Europe, starting with a case in Italy in 2007, and in the Americas, with the first local cases reported in the Caribbean in 2013. The lack of immunity in these new populations and the widespread presence of the mosquito vectors led to rapid transmission. Today, chikungunya is a major public health concern, with outbreaks occurring worldwide.

Despite chikungunya being a global threat, there is currently no specific vaccine or treatment available. Efforts to combat the disease focus on supportive care to manage symptoms and preventive measures to control mosquito populations. The rapid spread of chikungunya, especially in tropical and subtropical regions and increasingly in temperate areas, underscores the critical need for public health officials and researchers to work together to find effective solutions, from better diagnostic tools and vaccines to robust vector control programs.

Halloween may bring an abundance of sweets and chocolate, but a few of these treats could carry health risks that have nothing to do with sugar. Mixing certain confectionery with prescription medication can cause unexpected side effects, especially for people being treated for depression, anxiety, or heart conditions. Kiran Jones, a Clinical Pharmacist at Oxford Online Pharmacy, explained which medicines could be affected, ranging from stronger adverse reactions to reduced drug effectiveness, and what ingredients should be avoided.

Avoid Halloween Sweets If You Are on Medication

While enjoying Halloween treats in moderation is harmless for most people, those taking regular medication should be cautious. Some common ingredients in candies, especially artificial sweeteners, caffeine, liquorice, and food coloring can interfere with how medicines work. Even small amounts can alter absorption, increase side effects, or counteract the intended effect of the drug.

Depression, Anxiety and Parkinson’s Medications

Artificial sweeteners such as aspartame can interfere with neurotransmitters affected by Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs). These medicines are prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, and Parkinson’s disease by preventing the breakdown of neurotransmitters in the brain.

When combined with aspartame, these drugs can lead to an excessive build-up of neurotransmitters, resulting in high blood pressure, headaches, nervousness, or trouble sleeping.

Jones explained, “People taking these medications should avoid or limit foods containing aspartame to prevent these potentially serious reactions.”

ADHD, Anti-Anxiety and Blood Pressure Medications

Sugar-free sweets, diet drinks, and low-calorie snacks often contain artificial sweeteners like aspartame, while caffeine is commonly found in chocolate and coffee-flavoured candies. For those on ADHD medication, anti-anxiety pills, or blood pressure drugs, caffeine can significantly alter how the medicine behaves.

It can heighten the stimulant effects of drugs such as Adderall while weakening the calming impact of SSRIs. Similarly, caffeine may counteract beta-blockers used for blood pressure control by raising heart rate and blood pressure. This interaction can cause symptoms like palpitations, restlessness, poor sleep, and in severe cases, an increased risk of stroke or heart attack.

Blood Pressure, Diuretics and Antiarrhythmics Medications

People taking medication for blood pressure, water retention, or irregular heart rhythms should be cautious with liquorice sweets. Liquorice contains glycyrrhizin, a compound that reduces potassium levels and increases sodium retention in the body, which can lead to higher blood pressure and fluid retention.

This effect directly interferes with blood pressure and heart medications, making them less effective and potentially causing uncontrolled hypertension. Regular or excessive consumption could also worsen heart rhythm problems.

Allergy Medications

Those taking antihistamines for allergies should watch out for colourful candies like M&Ms or Skittles. Artificial food dyes in such sweets can trigger the release of histamines—the same compounds antihistamines are meant to block.

This can weaken the effectiveness of the medication and, for sensitive individuals, cause allergic responses such as itching, hives, or swelling. Even if the reaction is mild, repeated exposure can reduce the benefit of the medicine over time.

We all have habits we know are bad for us, yet we don’t stop doing them. Most smokers know that smoking is bad for their health, and even say they would like to quit, but something stops them. The National Institute of Health (NIH) explains how 70% smokers say they would like to quit, people who abuse drugs and alcohol also wish to give up their addiction but find it extremely difficult.

As such, there are many habits, people think do not harm them, but can take a toll on their body. In a recently posted video, Cardiologist Dmitry Yaranov, listed 5 habits that are slowly chipping away at your health.

‘Innocent Habits’ That Are Hurting Your Health

In the video caption, Dr Yaranov explained that these habits, often picked up by mistake, can make your body weaker and more susceptible to illnesses.

Running on Empty Fuel

Telling yourself, "I'll sleep when I'm dead," is a shortcut right to that outcome. Chronic lack of rest isn't just tiring; it’s physically damaging. Skimping on sleep constantly raises your blood pressure, makes you gain weight, and guarantees a serious burnout that you won't be able to recover from easily. Prioritize rest now.

Sitting All Day, Scrolling All Night

From your office chair to the car and the couch, sitting for too many hours is silently wrecking your health. Being constantly still tightens your back, slows down your metabolism, hurts your digestion, and weakens your heart. Your body needs regular movement to survive, not just a ten-minute walk. Get up and move more often.

Brushing Off Stress

Saying "I'm fine" while carrying the weight of the world is a dangerous habit. Eventually, your body will stop listening to your mind. Stress you try to ignore explodes into physical problems, like unexplained chest tightness, constant gut issues, severe insomnia, and sudden panic attacks. Acknowledge your stress before it breaks you.

Eating Whatever's Fast

Skipping your morning meal, grabbing drive-thru lunch, and relying on sugar for quick energy creates chaos inside you. This erratic eating causes your blood sugar to swing wildly, stressing every major organ. Your body needs consistent, nutritious fuel, not a constant roller coaster of sugar and grease. Feed your body well, not fast.

Saying Yes When You Should’ve Said No

You are always available, doing favors and taking on tasks for everyone else. But when was the last time you put your own needs first? Overcommitting drains your energy, time, and mental resources until there’s nothing left. This chronic neglect leads to resentment and exhaustion. Guard your boundaries and put yourself on the list.

How Can You Kick Harmful Habits?

Kicking any kind of habit can be difficult. The NIH explains that habits are just routines that we do without thinking. They are a normal, often helpful part of life, but they can also be things that harm your health.

While some habits are useful and do not require a lot of thinking, like brushing, showering, driving, other habits are based off-of pleasure or dopamine hit like smoking. Both types of habit use the same mechanics, but pleasure-based habits are much harder to break because of a chemical called dopamine.

The good news is that humans are not completely controlled by habit. We have other brain areas that can help us make better choices for our long-term health. There is no single solution; what works depends on the person. Dr. Volkow emphasizes that it's "not one size fits all." However, scientists recommend a few helpful techniques:

Increase Awareness and Avoid Triggers

Figure out the exact time and place where your bad habit happens. Knowing your triggers is the first major step toward taking back control. Next, make a plan to avoid those spots. If the candy machine is your weakness, take a different route. Stay away from people who tempt you.

Mentally Practice the Good Behavior

Before you face a tempting situation, close your eyes and picture yourself succeeding. Imagine choosing water over a sugary drink. Mentally rehearsing the healthy choice can prepare your brain. This practice boosts your chances of making the right decision when the real moment arrives.

Replace the Bad Habit with a New One

Don't just stop the bad habit; actively replace that routine with a new, healthy activity. Fill the void with something constructive. Many people successfully replace strong urges, even addictions, with intense exercise like running. A new ritual helps fight the old habit's pull.

As COVID and viral infections cases rise in numbers, researchers are finding out how, following the bout of cases, the risk of heart diseases has also increased in people. To explore this connection, new research published today in the Journal of the American Heart Association reveals a strong link between both acute and chronic viral infections and an increased risk of serious cardiovascular events, such as heart attacks and strokes.

The lead author, Dr. Kosuke Kawai, noted that while we know viruses can cause cancer, their link to non-infectious diseases like heart disease hasn't been clear. This study confirms that acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) viral infections are connected to both immediate and lasting risks for heart and brain events.

How Do Short Infections Cause Harm To Heart?

When your body fights off a virus, your immune system releases chemicals that cause inflammation (swelling) and make your blood more likely to clot. Both of these problems can linger even after the virus is gone.

This ongoing inflammation and tendency to clot can damage the heart and blood vessels, which is likely why the risk of a heart attack or stroke spikes so dramatically right after an illness.

The research details what happens to your heart risk right after you get a respiratory infection. The study combined data from many high-quality reports and found a major, temporary jump in risk:

Influenza (Flu)

In the month immediately following a confirmed flu infection, people were 4 times more likely to have a heart attack and 5 times more likely to have a stroke compared to when they weren't sick.

COVID-19

After a COVID infection, the risk was also high. People were 3 times more likely to have a heart attack and 3 times more likely to have a stroke in the first 14 weeks. Worryingly, this risk stayed higher than normal for an entire year.

What Infections Cause Long-Term Heart Risk?

This part of the study focused on people who have had certain chronic (long-lasting) viral infections, tracking their health for an average of over five years to see if their risk remained high:

HIV Infection

People with HIV had a 60% higher risk of heart attack and a 45% higher risk of stroke.

Hepatitis C

This infection was linked to a 27% higher risk of heart attack and a 23% higher risk of stroke.

Shingles (Herpes Zoster)

Even this common virus was associated with a 12% higher risk of heart attack and an 18% higher risk of stroke.

Even though these percentage increases are smaller than the immediate post-flu/COVID jump, they are still very important because the risk lasts for years. Shingles, for example, affects about one in three people in their lifetime, meaning that this seemingly small increase in risk will lead to a large number of extra heart problems across the general population over time.

How Can We Prevent Risk Of Heart Attacks After Infections?

The study suggests a powerful way to fight these risks is by getting vaccinated. The findings strongly support the idea that increasing the number of people who get flu, COVID, and shingles shots could lower the overall rate of heart attacks and strokes in the community. As an example, previous research has shown that getting a flu shot can be linked to a 34% lower risk of major heart problems.

The American Heart Association recommends that everyone, especially those with existing heart conditions or heart risk factors, talk to their doctor about getting the right vaccines. Vaccination is a simple step that offers crucial protection to people whose hearts are already vulnerable.

It’s important to remember that this study was based on looking at people's health records (observational studies), not on controlled experiments. The main focus was on single viruses. Researchers noted that we still need more studies to fully understand how some other viruses, like dengue and HPV, might be linked to heart disease.