The liver doesn’t ask for much, but it does everything for you. It metabolizes nutrients, screens out poisons, synthesizes proteins, and aids in the digestion of your food. But when hepatitis strikes—a disease characterized by swelling of the liver—that whole system can become unbalanced. And the most likely culprits? The five viruses simply called hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.

Each viral hepatitis type acts differently, transmits itself differently, and does its own kind of damage. Some resolve rapidly. Others lie dormant for years, silently harming the liver until it is too late. This makes learning about hepatitis—not as a disease but as a category of very different conditions—key to safeguarding long-term liver health.

When your liver becomes inflamed, it has difficulty doing its vital jobs—purifying your blood, making bile for digestion, storing nutrients, and helping to regulate clotting and metabolism. This inflammation may be acute (temporary) or chronic (longer than six months), depending on the cause and how your immune system reacts.

Hepatitis may be initiated by infections, toxins, autoimmune, or metabolic disorders, but the predominant offenders worldwide are viral infections. The viruses are segregated into hepatitis A through E, each with a different effect on liver cells and course of disease.

Hepatitis A

Hepatitis A is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV), usually spreading by food or water contamination. After entering the body, the virus takes the route of the bloodstream and reaches the liver. There, it infects liver cells and triggers the immune system to respond with inflammation.

This immune response results in the death of infected liver cells, and this can cause symptoms such as fatigue, jaundice, and gastrointestinal disturbance. Happily, HAV does not lead to chronic liver disease. The liver will normally regenerate completely after clearing the virus, and the majority of individuals recover in several weeks with no long-term effects.

All that being said, on occasion—most often in older individuals or individuals with existing liver disease—hepatitis A can result in acute liver failure. The liver gets so bogged down from inflammation that it temporarily ceases to function. Vaccination and proper sanitation are still the best defense.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is spread through blood, body fluids, or from mother to child at the time of birth. After entering the body, HBV infects liver cells and embeds its genetic material into them. The immune system destroys these infected cells, leading to extensive inflammation.

In most adults, the immune system eliminates the virus and the liver recovers. But not in all—particularly infants infected at birth—the virus persists. Chronic hepatitis B forms when the body's immune system fails to destroy the virus, resulting in prolonged inflammation and eventual loss of liver cells.

With time, this persistent immune attack can result in fibrosis (liver scarring), cirrhosis (severe, permanent scarring), and even liver cancer. What's particularly alarming is that chronic hepatitis B usually has no symptoms for decades. But below the radar, the virus quietly destroys liver tissue, cell by cell.

Vaccination prevents hepatitis B remarkably well, and antiviral medications can suppress the virus, stopping or slowing liver damage.

Hepatitis C

In contrast to HAV and HBV, hepatitis C virus (HCV) is transmitted nearly exclusively via the blood—usually through shared needles, untested transfusions (prior to 1992), or unsterilized medical procedures. Once infected by HCV, the liver starts to replicate the virus within liver cells, hiding from the immune system for years.

This sneaky virus hardly ever produces symptoms at the acute stage. Actually, most individuals don't even realize they are infected. But the liver doesn't remain unaffected. As HCV quietly multiplies, it causes low-grade inflammation that lasts for decades. The immune system acts against the infected cells, causing fibrosis.

Over time, chronic hepatitis C can lead to cirrhosis, in which scar tissue forms in place of healthy liver tissue. In later stages, the function of the liver declines, and the risk of liver failure and liver cancer accelerates. A liver transplant becomes the only recourse for many.

The better news? Direct-acting antiviral (DAA) treatments now cure greater than 95% of infections. Early diagnosis, however, is still important—once cirrhosis takes hold, the damage can be permanent, even once the virus is gone.

Hepatitis D

Hepatitis D, or HDV, is different from the others—it can't infect the liver by itself. It only exists in those already infected with hepatitis B, employing the outer shell of the HBV virus to replicate.

When HBV and HDV infect the liver concurrently (a co-infection) or if HDV is contracted later on superimposition of pre-existing HBV (a superinfection), the immune system is twice assaulted. The liver has to cope with more intense inflammation, resulting in more rapid fibrosis progression and much increased risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.

In individuals with co-infection, liver injury is more severe, and complications arise years sooner than in HBV mono-infection. There are no specific therapies for HDV currently, and its management relies mostly on the control of hepatitis B.

It is also possible to prevent HBV infection and thereby hepatitis D by vaccination. Antiviral therapy and close follow-up can likewise decrease the chances of serious HDV complications in those already infected with HBV.

Hepatitis E

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is transmitted primarily through water, which makes it prevalent in underdeveloped countries with inadequate sanitation. Upon entry into the body, it acts like HAV—producing an acute infection, liver inflammation, and a short duration of illness.

The vast majority of healthy individuals with hepatitis E recover uneventfully. The virus is naturally cleared, and the liver generally restores to normal completely. But in pregnant women, particularly in the third trimester, hepatitis E leads to acute liver failure and has a significantly increased risk of death. This is secondary to an overactive immune response and hormonal changes that exacerbate the liver's inflammatory process.

Hepatitis E can, in rare cases, become chronic, leading to long-term damage of the liver in some individuals, such as organ transplant recipients, especially those with weakened immune systems.

Prevention through clean water, sanitation, and hygiene and food safety is practiced in most countries where there are no widely available vaccines for hepatitis E.

What Are the Consequences of Chronic Hepatitis?

What links hepatitis B, C, and occasionally D is that they all have the potential to become chronic—i.e., the virus continues to cause liver inflammation over years or even decades. This ongoing low-grade inflammation leads to persistent scarring of liver tissue, called fibrosis.

As fibrosis progresses, it results in cirrhosis, with scar tissue dominating the liver, strangling its blood supply and function. The liver starts to fail. It is no longer able to process toxins, manufacture clotting factors, or metabolize drugs. Here, individuals are susceptible to internal bleeding, confusion, infections, and organ failure.

Even more concerning is the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma, a liver cancer primary to chronic hepatitis B and C. The chronic viral presence causes changes in DNA of liver cells, paving the way for malignant change.

What If Hepatitis Is Left Untreated?

Not treating hepatitis—especially the chronic stages—places you on a trajectory for irreversible liver damage. Even when you may not be feeling sick at present, inflammation can be quietly devouring your liver. Left untreated, this can culminate in lifelong disability, necessitate liver transplantation, or cut short lifespan from complications such as liver cancer.

In addition, untreated individuals can go on to infect others with hepatitis B or C by contact with blood or through sex. In pregnant women, hepatitis B and C can be transmitted to the unborn child at the time of delivery, which makes prevention and early treatment critical to the next generation.

Every year on July 28, World Hepatitis Day calls to mind that hepatitis remains a global health issue. More than 354 million individuals have chronic hepatitis B or C infection, unaware they are infected. It's not only an issue in low-income nations—people from all geographies and income groups are affected by hepatitis.

The date commemorates Nobel laureate scientist Dr. Baruch Blumberg, who discovered the hepatitis B virus and created the first vaccine. His legacy goes on saving millions of lives.

The World Health Organization's goal is ambitious, to eradicate viral hepatitis as a public health threat by 2030. But it begins with awareness, testing, vaccination, and access to life-saving treatment.

The liver is tough, but not forever. Once scarring sets in, there is no turning back. The sooner hepatitis is found, the better your chances of recovery and preventing long-term complications. With vaccines to prevent hepatitis A and B, and curative therapy for hepatitis C, the means are at hand.

If you’ve never been tested for hepatitis, especially if you’ve had a blood transfusion before the 90s, were born to an infected mother, or engaged in high-risk behaviors now is the time. Your liver’s future depends on it.

A tiny sore in your mouth might not seem like a big deal until it starts to sting every time you eat, drink, or even breathe. Mouth ulcers are more common than we give them credit for. Usually, they’re nothing to worry about. But if they’re showing up a bit too often or staying longer than usual, it’s time to pay attention.

Here’s a look at when to shrug it off, when to switch to soup, and when to book that appointment with your dentist or GP.

Ulcers Happen But Not All Should Be Ignored

Normally, ulcers usually clear up within two weeks and are often linked to being run down or low on certain vitamins. But if that ulcer refuses to budge after three weeks, it’s not something to ignore. Cancer Research UK recommends seeing a doctor or dentist if an ulcer or a red or white patch is still hanging around after three weeks. It could be harmless, but it could also be your body waving a little red flag.

DIY Healing

Most mouth ulcers don’t need a lot to treat. The NHS says they’ll usually heal with time and a little TLC. That said, you can speed things up by not doing things that make them worse.

Skip the spicy curries, salty snacks, acidic foods, and crunchy culprits like toast or crisps. Basically, if it hurts to eat it, you shouldn’t be eating it. Hot and acidic drinks like fruit juice are also a no-go. As for toothpaste, check the label, avoid ones with sodium lauryl sulphate, a foaming agent that can irritate ulcers.

Instead, go soft and soothing. Stick to cool drinks, go for gentle foods, and switch to a soft-bristled toothbrush that won’t scratch or poke at sensitive areas. Regular dental check-ups and a balanced diet also go a long way in keeping your mouth happy.

Not All Ulcers Are Created Equal

Most of the time, ulcers are just that: temporary sores. But if you’re dealing with one that refuses to heal, is especially large or painful, or comes with other symptoms like swelling, difficulty eating, or a lump in the neck, don’t play the waiting game. It might be something more serious, like an infection or in rare cases, something that requires more thorough investigation.

Prevention

If you’ve had your fair share of ulcers and want to avoid the next round, the answer lies in prevention. Aside from dodging the usual food triggers, it helps to manage stress, get enough sleep, and eat a diet rich in iron, folate, and B vitamins. Also, drink plenty of water and make sure your mouth stays clean.

Regular dental visits help your dentist spot the early signs of anything unusual and give you personalised tips on how to avoid recurring ulcers.

Don’t Panic, But Don’t Ignore

Mouth ulcers are rarely serious. Still, it’s better to be safe than sorry. If your ulcer overstays, refuses to heal, or comes with other odd symptoms, get it checked. And while you wait it out, treat your mouth gently. Avoid fiery foods, switch to a soothing routine, and try not to poke at it with your tongue.

If you’ve ever felt your heart rate spike just because your phone buzzed during dinner, you’re not alone. In our hyper-connected lives, notifications can set off a full-blown biological alarm. But what’s happening inside you isn’t just “in your head”; it’s ancient biology meeting modern tech, and the result is often anxiety, chronic stress and, eventually, burnout.

Here’s why you panic every time that screen lights up and how to stop spiralling into stress over a simple message.

Your brain may be rational, but your hormones have other ideas. According to reports, the moment a message lands, especially one that feels urgent or work-related, your body launches into ‘fight or flight’ mode.

Cortisol, the stress hormone, floods your system and primes you to react. And if the ping is from your boss or an emotionally charged source, the cortisol surge can be even more intense.

To make things worse, adrenaline often tags along. This amps up alertness, raises your heart rate and makes it nearly impossible to relax. Your brain is preparing you to flee from danger even if the only threat is an email with the subject line “quick update”.

The Dopamine Trap

Just to complicate things, dopamine, the pleasure chemical, also plays a part. Every time you check your phone and respond, your brain rewards you with a little shot of satisfaction. That’s why it’s so easy to get hooked and why you keep checking even though it stresses you out.

When Oxytocin Gets Triggered

Normally, messages from loved ones trigger oxytocin, the hormone that helps us bond and feel safe. But when the messages are draining, demanding or tied to work, that warm fuzzy feeling gets pushed out by stress chemicals. Over time, this can disrupt your ability to be present and genuinely connect with others, leading to burnout.

Melatonin Meltdown

And if you’re checking those pings before bed, you should stop. Reports warn that notifications late at night reduce the production of melatonin, the hormone responsible for quality sleep. Without it, you may struggle to nod off, stay asleep or feel rested, fuelling a cycle of fatigue, brain fog and even more stress.

The Long-Term Fallout

If this sounds like an exhausting loop, it is. Consistent cortisol spikes and dopamine hits can wreak havoc on your health. Think weight gain, insomnia, poor focus and a fried nervous system. In fact, studies show that 76 per cent of millennials and 40 per cent of baby boomers admit to feeling anxious the moment their phone lights up.

Here are a few tricks to help you break the cycle.

1. Set Notification Boundaries

Draw a digital line in the sand. Turn off alerts after a set time or batch-check messages every few hours instead of reacting instantly. Use your phone’s ‘Do Not Disturb’ mode to protect time for real life.

2. Mute the Noise

Not every ping is essential. Reports suggest turning off non-urgent app and group chat notifications. Fewer pings mean fewer cortisol spikes and less temptation to fall down the notification rabbit hole.

3. Prioritise In-Person Conversations

Texts are easy to misread, and fast replies aren’t always the best ones. If possible, have real conversations with friends, colleagues or family. Face-to-face talks promote oxytocin, reduce stress and avoid unnecessary misunderstandings.

4. Train Yourself to Pause

Next time your phone buzzes, don’t jump. Take five deep breaths. Count to five. Ask yourself if the message needs an immediate reply. This tiny pause rewires your stress response and reins in that hormone cascade.

5. Keep Work Messages in Their Lane

When work bleeds into personal time, stress seeps in. It is recommended to have a chat with your manager or team about boundaries. Set a window for work-related conversations and stick to it. Your wellbeing shouldn’t be a casualty of always being “available”.

The interesting thing about people is how unique everyone’s perspectives are. Everyone has their way of thinking, their own way of doing things as well as their own unique memories. These aspects make us human and set us apart from everyone. Can you imagine losing all of these because of a disease that robs you of your cognitive abilities? Dementia is not as uncommon as we think it is. Affecting millions, we are yet to find a cure for this disease. While researchers have identified risk factors, does changing them make any difference?

A new study asked an important question: Can making specific changes to our daily lives actually improve or protect our thinking skills as we get older, especially for those who might be at risk of memory problems or dementia?

Organized Efforts Work Better

This study involved over 2,100 older adults who faced a higher chance of their thinking skills declining. We compared two different groups over two years. One group followed a well-organized plan for healthy living. This plan included regular moderate to intense exercise, sticking to a special "MIND diet," doing activities that challenge the brain and encourage spending time with others, and regular checks on heart health. The other group got a less organized plan that they had to follow more on their own.

This was a big study where neither the participants nor the initial assessors knew which group someone was in. It took place in 5 different medical centers across the U.S. from 2019 to 2023. We included 2,111 people between 60 and 79 years old who weren't very active and didn't eat the best diet. To make sure we studied people truly at risk, they also had to have at least two other risk factors, like a family history of memory issues, heart problems, or just being older.

• Structured Group, who received a detailed, ongoing plan for exercise, diet, brain-challenging activities, social time, and heart health checks. They had more guidance and were regularly checked on.
• Self-Guided Group, who got general advice on the same healthy lifestyle areas but had less structure and fewer regular check-ins.

The main goal was to see how much a person's overall thinking ability changed each year over the two-year study. We used a combined score that looked at different brain skills like planning, remembering things, and how quickly their brain worked.

Results of the Study

Out of all the people who started, almost 90% finished the two-year assessment. Both groups showed some improvement in their thinking scores over time. However, the structured group's improvement was clearly bigger than the self-guided group's.

Interestingly, the benefits of the structured program were helpful whether or not a person carried a specific gene (APOE 4) linked to Alzheimer's risk. But, the structured program seemed to help those who had lower thinking abilities at the beginning of the study even more.

We also kept track of any problems or side effects. The structured group actually reported fewer serious and non-serious problems compared to the self-guided group. The most common health issue overall was getting COVID-19.

What This Means for You

The results clearly showed that the organized group had a noticeably better improvement in their overall thinking abilities. Their brain scores went up more each year compared to the group that followed the less organized plan. This means that having a structured approach made a bigger positive difference for their brains.

The findings suggest that if you're an older adult at risk of memory problems, a structured, more involved healthy lifestyle plan is more helpful for your thinking skills than trying to do it all on your own with less guidance. We still need more research to see how much these brain improvements affect daily life and if they last for many years.

It's really important to find ways to slow down or prevent memory loss that can lead to dementia. Things we can do in our daily lives, like changing our habits, are promising because they are usually affordable, easy to access, and safe. They offer a good way to protect our brains without relying on medicines alone.