Emotions are an organic and essential component of human life. They help individuals convey messages to others, reduce stress, and connect to the surroundings. However, in the case of some people, emotional responses are no longer in their control. Sometimes, the reactions can be excessive, inappropriate, or entirely out of place. This is known as pseudobulbar affect, which refers to an uncontrolled and sometimes exaggerated laughing or crying condition.

Although PBA itself is not a disease, it is closely related to neurological disorders and brain injuries. The effects of PBA can be distressing, but understanding its causes and treatment options can help manage its impact on daily life.

What Is Pseudobulbar Affect (PBA)?

PBA is a neurological condition that causes sudden, involuntary emotional outbursts. These episodes can manifest themselves through excessive laughing or crying that is inappropriate considering the context of the situation. These individuals experience extreme reactions with PBA, such as laughter during serious moments or tears in the absence of sadness, apparently without any emotional precipitate. These outbursts also occur for longer periods than may be expected in normal circumstances and are not easily controlled to see when or how long they occur.

Although PBA is not life-threatening, it can significantly affect a person's social and emotional well-being. People who experience PBA may find themselves embarrassed, frustrated, or isolated, as their emotional responses seem out of sync with their true feelings.

Studies estimate that up to 7 million Americans exhibit symptoms of PBA, and approximately 2 million individuals are diagnosed with the condition. PBA is most often seen in patients who have experienced a brain injury or suffer from neurological diseases. In some cases, PBA symptoms may be mistaken for mood disorders such as depression or anxiety, but the underlying causes are related to brain dysfunction rather than emotional instability.

What Causes PBA?

The root cause of pseudobulbar affect lies in the dysfunction of the central nervous system (CNS). More specifically, PBA results from damage to the brain's emotional regulation pathways, particularly the areas that control laughter and crying. Damage to these areas leads to involuntary emotional outbursts that are disconnected from the person’s actual feelings. Several neurological conditions can disrupt these pathways and increase the likelihood of developing PBA.

Here are five major conditions associated with PBA:

1. Stroke

A stroke occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, depriving brain cells of oxygen and leading to their damage or death. This can result in physical disabilities, cognitive impairments, and emotional disturbances. Between 28% and 52% of stroke survivors experience PBA, with those assigned female at birth being at a higher risk. The symptoms of PBA are sometimes hard to differentiate from other effects that a stroke can bring.

Accurate diagnosis is very important. If you or someone you care about has had a stroke and cannot stop laughing or crying, you need to talk to a doctor, because these symptoms could mean PBA rather than a mood disorder.

2. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Traumatic brain injury often occurs due to external forces such as falls, car accidents, or sports injuries. TBIs can be a concussion or severe damage to the brain, and PBA is a common result of major head trauma. Studies have found that 5-48% of people with TBI develop symptoms of PBA, though this range varies due to underreporting and misdiagnosis.

Symptoms may be confused with another condition like depression or post-traumatic stress disorder, which can make them discuss emotional changes with a doctor who may have the patient referred for further neurology evaluation.

3. Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system fights against the protective covering of nerve fibers in the CNS, bringing about the disintegration of the communication process between the brain and the body. People with MS are more susceptible to developing PBA and have shown a prevalence rate of 10% from studies among patients with symptoms of involuntary laughter or crying.

MS-related brain lesions and the utilization of certain drugs can contribute to developing PBA. The lack of predictability of PBA can be especially problematic for an MS patient because it can create problems with social interactions as well as quality of life.

4. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disease that affects cells in the nerve responsible for controlling voluntary movements of the muscles. As the motor neurons degenerate, patients begin experiencing muscle weakness, loss of mobility, and eventually, a failure to breathe. About 10% of patients with ALS develop PBA, in which crying is more common than laughing.

While ALS itself inflicts much physical and emotional stress, PBA can make an already difficult emotional experience even worse for patients and their families to bear.

5. Parkinson's Disease and Dementia

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological disorder affecting movement. PBA often occurs in advanced Parkinson's disease. The prevalence of PBA symptoms among Parkinson's patients has been reported to be 3.6% to 42.5%. In addition, the cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease can also lead to PBA, and the prevalence among these patients has been estimated to be as high as 40%.

These conditions often have fluctuations in mood, which could be mistaken for mood disorders, complicating the diagnosis. Therefore, identification of symptoms of PBA in patients with Parkinson's and dementia is essential to ensure that these patients get proper care and support.

Symptoms of PBA

The symptoms of PBA are varied but usually involve:

• Increased emotional reactions: Laughter or crying for longer durations or of more intensity than the situation requires.
• Inappropriate crying and laughing: Laughing without a reason, e.g., at a solemn ceremony, or crying without having the feeling of sadness.
• Abrupt start: Episodes of crying and laughing can start without an identifiable emotional trigger.
• Inability to stop the episode: Unlike typical emotional outbursts, individuals with PBA are not able to control or end the episode once started.
• Emotional changes: Crying can change quickly into laughing, or vice versa, without any recognizable trigger.

Treatment for PBA

Although PBA is not a life-threatening condition, it can be very disruptive. There are treatments available to help manage the symptoms. Dextromethorphan/quinidine (Nuedexta) is the only FDA-approved medication specifically for PBA. This drug works by changing the way certain neurotransmitters function in the brain, helping to control emotional outbursts. In addition, antidepressants may be prescribed off-label to help alleviate symptoms in some cases.

Beyond medication, therapy and support groups can be very helpful in managing the social and emotional challenges of living with PBA. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) may help individuals understand their emotional responses and develop coping strategies to reduce the impact of PBA on their lives.

Pseudobulbar affect is a condition that can result from several serious neurological disorders. While the involuntary laughing and crying symptoms themselves are disturbing, it's the connection of PBA to brain dysfunction that will eventually lead to proper treatment and support for the patient.

If your loved one or you have sudden uncontrollable outbursts emotionally, it's essential to seek a comprehensive evaluation from the healthcare professional. With the right diagnosis and management plan, individuals with PBA can improve their emotional regulation and continue to live fulfilling lives despite the challenges of their condition.

Pseudobulbar affect (PBA).Multiple Sclerosis Association of America. 2010.

Pseudobulbar aPseudobulbar affect (PBA)ffect (PBA). American Stroke Association.

Actress Bijou Phillips, 45, has turned to social media to seek a kidney, issuing an urgent request. In a recent social media post, the ‘Made for Each Other’ actress issued a heartfelt plea for a living kidney donor to help her navigate a the medical crisis.

Phillips framed her request not just as an actress, but through the lens of her family roles. "I’m asking as a friend, a sister, an aunt and most important, a single mother to an incredible and brave daughter," she said.

Why Does Bijou Phillips Need A Kidney Transplant?

In a post dated February 11, she explained that she was born with underdeveloped kidneys and spent 3 months in the NICU (Neonatal Intensive Care Unit). In 2017 she received her first kidney transplant which helped her for eight years. However, she faced many complications including the BK virus that led to cellular and antibody rejection.

BK virus, according to the National Kidney Foundation, is a common inactive virus in the body that can ‘wake up’ after a transplant.

It can cause blurred vision, change in the color of urine, pain or discomfort while urinating, trouble breathing, fever, muscle pain, frequent urination, as well as seizures.

What Causes Underdeveloped Kidneys?

Different conditions are known to cause either underdeveloped kidneys or the absence of one or both kidneys, Bilateral Renal Agenesis/Hypoplasia/Dysplasia. According to the PLOS One 2010 study, these 3 types of underdeveloped kidneys fall under the Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract or CAKUT. However there are a few differences.

Bilateral Renal Agenesis

This occurs when both kidneys fail to develop entirely. The study links this to "gene-free" chromosomal breaks and mutations in the Esrrg gene, which normally directs essential early kidney formation.

Renal Hypoplasia

The kidneys are present but significantly small or "underdeveloped." The research suggests this happens when genetic signals for "ductal tissue" are interrupted, preventing the kidneys from reaching their full, functional size.

Renal Dysplasia

This is an "abnormal" formation where kidney tissue is malformed. The study associates this with "laterality" errors, where the body's internal organization fails, causing kidneys to grow with structural defects.

What Are Signs of Underdeveloped Kidneys?

According to the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, kidney and urinary tract issues are usually spotted during a pregnancy ultrasound. When a problem is found, doctors watch the amniotic fluid levels closely, since that fluid is mostly made of the baby’s urine. If the issue isn't caught before birth, you might notice these signs in a baby or child:

• Frequent UTIs
• A swollen stomach
• Puffiness
• Stomach troubles
• Slow growth
• Low energy

Bijou Phillips’ Message For Supporters

Currently back on dialysis, Phillips is under the care of Dr. Anjay Rastogi at UCLA. She is actively searching for a living donor and has directed interested individuals to a screening link in her Instagram bio.

"Please help me find a living donor so that I can have more time with my daughter, family, friends," she wrote, expressing deep gratitude for the public's ongoing support.

Vitamin C is a star ingredient in the skincare world for some very good reasons. It can be hailed as a magic wand to evaporate your stubborn marks and give you a brighter complexion.

However, no matter what product you use, the results do not appear overnight. So, what do real results look like? What does a before-and-after journey of using a Vitamin C serum actually entail?

This guide covers everything about the before-and-after results of using the Vitamin C serum.

What Is Vitamin C Serum and How Does It Work on Skin?

It is a potent antioxidant that can be applied to your skin directly. It neutralises the effects of free radicals, which are tiny and unstable molecules caused by pollution and UV rays. They can easily damage your skin and accelerate ageing.

Vitamin C helps by boosting collagen production and improving skin tone. This is why the results of Vitamin C on the face are so dramatic. It changes the flat look of your skin to a healthy glow.

Key benefits include:

· Brightening: It blocks the enzyme responsible for producing pigment, leading to more radiant skin.

· Fading Marks: A remarkable ingredient for targeting sun damage and acne scars.

· Collagen Stimulation: It keeps your skin bouncy and firm.

· Protection: It provides a second layer of defence against environmental stress.

Before and After Vitamin C Serum: What to Expect on Your Face

Consistent use of the serum for several weeks, along with daily application of sunscreen with SPF 50 can yield noticeable results. Here’s what you can expect from it.

Before Using Vitamin C Serum

Your skin may show signs of environmental wear and tear before you start using a serum. The following are some common complaints:

· Your skin looks tired, even after a full night's sleep.

· You may have patchy skin or dark areas around the mouth and forehead.

· Old acne spots or sun freckles that refuse to fade.

· Skin that feels slightly rough or looks congested.

After Consistent Use

The changes in your face before and after using a vitamin C serum become evident after your skin integrates the serum into its renewal cycle:

· It will give you that lit-from-within look.

· Dark spots become significantly lighter and blend into your natural skin tone.

· Your skin feels more elastic and youthful due to increased collagen.

· The surface of your skin looks smoother.

Timeline of Vitamin C Serum Before and After Results

First Week: Initial Freshness & Surface Glow

There is little change in dark spots during the first few days. However, you may notice an immediate glow on your skin surface. The serum hydrates and smoothens the skin's surface, helping makeup sit better. Vitamin C for dark spots before and after signs are clearly visible.

2–4 Weeks: Brightening & Early Spot Lightening

You will start to see the before-and-after progress of vitamin C on dark spots around this stage. Its pigment-blocking properties start to kick in. You may notice that your overall skin tone looks fresher and that the edges of your dark spots are now fading.

4–8 Weeks: Visible Even Tone and Improved Texture

The difference between your face before after vitamin C serum will be more obvious by the end of the second month. The deeper layers of the skin benefit from the antioxidant protection. You can expect the following changes:

· Visibly less sun damage

· Even complexion, so you may not need concealer

· Fewer rough patches

8–12 Weeks: Long-Term Transformation

After 90 days, your skin has gone through multiple renewal cycles. Your Vitamin C serum before-and-after photos may show significant improvement in hyperpigmentation. Fine lines may reduce because of the increased collagen, as your skin looks the healthiest it has in years.

Tips to Maximize Your Vitamin C Serum Before and After Results

If you want your before-and-after vitamin C serum results to be impressive, you need to follow these simple rules:

1. Morning is Best: Apply your serum in the AM. This allows the antioxidants to protect your skin from pollution and sunlight throughout the day.

2. Pair with Sunscreen: Always follow up with a sunscreen. Vitamin C is not a replacement for sunblock, but it actually makes your sunscreen with SPF 50 more effective by neutralizing the rays that slip through.

3. Storing the Serum: Vitamin C is sensitive to light and air. Keep your bottle in a cool, dark place (such as a drawer) to ensure it does not lose its potency. If your serum has become dark or orange in colour, it may have been oxidised. So, it may not work well.

4. Consistency: You do not need a huge amount of serum. 3–4 drops are enough. You need to apply it every single day without skipping.

Final Thoughts

The journey of your face before and after Vitamin C serum can feel long, but the results are worth it. It can be exciting to see the initial glow. However, the real changes, such as fading deep dark spots and firming the skin, take time. Stick to a routine and pair your skin with a high-quality sunscreen to stay radiant and youthful.

The Healthandme team was not involved in authoring this story

Scientists say they have uncovered the first strong evidence that a specific type of brain training could meaningfully reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. The findings come from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study, a large US clinical trial that followed 2,802 healthy adults aged 65 and older for 20 years. Published in Alzheimer’s & Dementia: Translational Research & Clinical Interventions, the research found that participants who completed a targeted “speed of processing” brain training programme, along with booster sessions, had a 25 per cent lower risk of developing dementia compared to those who received no training.

Why This Matters

Dementia remains one of the most pressing health challenges worldwide. In the UK alone, around 900,000 people live with the condition, with Alzheimer’s disease being the most common form. There is currently no cure. While newer drugs may modestly slow cognitive decline for some patients, they do not stop or reverse the disease.

That is why prevention, or even delay, is so crucial. Even pushing back the onset of dementia by a year or two across the population could significantly reduce strain on families, healthcare systems and social care services.

Lifestyle factors already play an important role. Regular exercise, managing blood pressure and diabetes, avoiding smoking and staying socially active are all linked to lower dementia risk. Now, this new research suggests that certain types of structured mental training may also help.

Inside the ACTIVE Study

Back in the late 1990s, researchers randomly assigned older adults to one of four groups:

• Speed-of-processing training
• Memory training
• Reasoning training
• No training (control group)

Each participant attended ten hour-long sessions over five to six weeks. Some who completed most of the sessions were later randomly selected to receive additional “booster” sessions about 11 months later and again after 35 months. In total, participants completed between 10 and 22½ hours of training spread over three years.

Memory training focused on mnemonic techniques. Reasoning training involved identifying patterns and solving structured problems. But it was the speed-of-processing training, delivered through a computer-based programme, that stood out.

The Brain Game That Made a Difference

One of the key exercises, called Double Decision, required participants to quickly identify a central object (like a specific car) while simultaneously locating a road sign that briefly flashed in their peripheral vision. As players improved, the images appeared for shorter periods, increasing difficulty.

The best possible score in the game was 32 milliseconds. The average score hovered around 100 milliseconds, but participants who stuck with the programme often improved to about 50 milliseconds — nearly doubling their processing speed.

Unlike memory drills, this training targeted how quickly and accurately the brain processes visual information — a skill that tends to decline with age.

What Happened Over 20 Years?

Researchers tracked participants’ health records to see who was later diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease or related dementias. Nearly half of the control group developed dementia during the two-decade follow-up.

The same held true for those who received memory or reasoning training.

However, the group that completed speed training and received booster sessions had a strikingly different outcome: their risk of dementia diagnosis was 25 per cent lower than the control group.

A Note of Caution

The researchers themselves urge caution. The people who benefited most were those who completed the initial sessions and returned for boosters. It’s possible that these individuals were already more motivated, healthier, or cognitively stronger — factors that may independently reduce dementia risk.

To address this, booster sessions were randomly allocated among eligible participants, and analyses adjusted for age, education, baseline cognitive performance and other health factors. Still, no statistical method can completely eliminate the possibility that the most engaged participants were also those most likely to stay healthier longer.

Henry Mahncke, chief executive of Posit Science — the company behind the training software — described the results as “astonishing” and potentially transformative for brain health.

The academic authors, including researchers from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Washington, were more measured. They concluded that speed-of-processing training “has the potential to delay the diagnosis” of Alzheimer’s and related dementias — but further research is needed.

If confirmed, the implications could be profound. The idea that even later-life brain training might buy people more time before dementia sets in offers a rare note of hope in a field where breakthroughs are hard won.