Trauma resulting from combat, car accidents, natural disasters, domestic violence, sexual assault or child abuse can leave a deep imprint on both the brain and body. The effects of these experiences can be incredibly variable. For some, the disruption may be relatively brief, with disturbing dreams or heightened emotional responses resolving within weeks. For others, symptoms that emerge after trauma eventually become chronic, disrupting daily life, work, and relationships.

Healing is a very intimate process, and what heals one may not heal the other. Survivors must, therefore, find treatments that resonate with them and embark on their journey of self-discovery to alleviate symptoms and be in control again.

PTSD is a testament to the adaptability of the brain and its drive to protect us. It can empower survivors to seek help while creating a compassionate support network around them. Time, resources, and care can be put to use to move toward healing, bringing life back from the trauma.

This article reviews the complex interaction between trauma and the brain, providing insight into how traumatic experience re-configures neural structures and contributes to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

How the Brain Reacts to Trauma

Brain is a marvelous organ, designed with a definitive purpose in mind-safety or survival. As we negotiate the complexity of human existence, the brain enlists experience in memory so that we can differentiate between agents of either good or evil. Trauma makes this mechanism hyperactive, for the safety instinct overrules everything else.

After a traumatic event, the brain is compelled to overuse past experiences in predicting dangers which might be present at the moment, but long gone. Hypervigilance and an inability to discriminate between threats of past times and those of the current time define individuals with PTSD.

Cognitive Response of the Triune Brain to Trauma

Paul D. MacLean's Triune Brain model offers a framework to understand how trauma affects the functioning of the brain. The model divides the brain into three main regions:

The Reptilian Brain: This is the most primitive part of the brain, responsible for survival instincts and autonomic processes like heart rate and breathing.

The Mammalian Brain: Includes the limbic system, which processes emotions and regulates attachment and reproduction.

Neomammalian Brain: Processes sensory information, learns, memorizes, and makes decisions and complex problems-solving.

The brain suppresses higher cognitive functions and favors the functions of the reptilian and mammalian brains when faced with trauma. This shift will automatically trigger the "fight, flight, freeze, or fawn" response, which sends out stress hormones like cortisol throughout the body.

Normally, the parasympathetic nervous system will rebalance once the threat is gone; however, people with PTSD are stuck in survival mode, causing a state of chronic stress.

Key Brain Regions Affected by Trauma

Amygdala

The amygdala, responsible for detecting danger, becomes overactive in individuals with PTSD. It often misinterprets harmless stimuli as threats, causing persistent feelings of anxiety, hypervigilance, and fear. This heightened response can lead to emotional outbursts, difficulty relaxing, and an ongoing sense of unease.

Hippocampus

The hippocampus, which is used in learning and memory, atrophies in people who suffer from PTSD. Shrinkage of this particular region makes the brain have difficulties distinguishing between past and present events, resulting in flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, and an inability to recall the specifics. The diminished function of the hippocampus also interferes with problem-solving and regulation of emotions.

Prefrontal Cortex

Trauma reduces activity in the prefrontal cortex, which controls decision-making and logical thinking. This reduction in activity makes it difficult to contextualize and process fear responses, leaving people prone to overreaction to perceived threats.

Nervous System

The nervous system's constant activation in PTSD diminishes a person's capacity to handle stress. Even minor challenges may provoke intense reactions, as the brain remains primed for danger.

Symptoms of PTSD

The effects of PTSD are not confined within the brain, having an impact on every part of daily life. The American Psychiatric Association states the following common symptoms include:

• Intrusive thoughts
• Flashbacks, and nightmares
• Heightened irritability
• Rage
• Anxiety
• Difficulty with memory, concentration, and decision-making
• Panic attacks
• Insomnia
• Emotional numbing

All this symptoms of trauma often interfere with a patient's personal relationships, professional skills, and general well-being, making the survivors more and more isolated and misunderstood.

Healing the Trauma Brain

The changes, however, that trauma triggers in the brain are of such magnitude that recovery from this is possible through targeted intervention. Treatments often come in the form of psychotherapy, including:

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT): Identifies and helps in altering negative thought patterns.

Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT): Helps reshape belief patterns based on trauma.

Prolonged Exposure Therapy (PE): Helps develop resistance to triggers through gradual exposure.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR): Facilitates processing trauma with bilateral stimulation, creating new, healthier associations.

We have all been there, done that. Reaching out to Google every time we face slight discomfort sneezing, convinced that we have some serious disease. While not every ache or tickle means an emergency, some symptoms really do need urgent attention. According to ER doctors, there are a handful of red flags you should never brush off.

Here are six warning signs you should pay attention to immediately.

1. Chest Pain That Feels Super Heavy

We have all had heartburn after a cheesy pizza, but chest pain is not something to gamble with. Reports say crushing, pressure-like chest pain that radiates to your arm, jaw, or back is a huge red flag for a heart attack. Sometimes it comes with sweating, shortness of breath, or nausea. Even if you are young and otherwise healthy, do not assume it is just gas or stress. When in doubt, get checked out; it is always better to be told it is heartburn than to ignore a heart attack.

2. The Worst Headache of Your Life

Sure, headaches are common, but if you suddenly feel like someone is hammering your skull with no mercy, do not tough it out. According to the reports, a sudden, severe headache, especially if it is different from your usual migraines, could signal a brain aneurysm, bleeding, or other neurological emergency. Pair that with vision changes, weakness, or slurred speech, and you should be calling for help immediately.

3. Unexplained Shortness of Breath

Running up the stairs and wheezing like a deflating balloon is one thing. But struggling to breathe at rest or without any exertion? That is a whole different story. Experts say unexplained shortness of breath could point to conditions like blood clots in the lungs, asthma attacks, pneumonia, or even heart problems. If your chest feels tight, you are gasping for air, or your lips are turning blue, it is not something to “walk off”.

4. Sudden Weakness or Numbness in One Side of the Body

If you are holding something, and suddenly it slips right out of your hand because your arm has no feeling. Or half your face feels like it is melting. These are classic stroke symptoms, and ER doctors stress that time is everything. The quicker you get treatment, the higher the chances of recovery. Remember the acronym FAST: Face drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulty, Time to call emergency services. Do not wait it out hoping it will pass.

5. Uncontrolled Bleeding

A paper cut? No big deal. A deep cut that refuses to stop bleeding after 10 minutes of firm pressure? That is a medical emergency. According to the reports, that uncontrolled bleeding can mean a damaged artery or an underlying clotting disorder. If you are soaking through bandages or the blood will not stop, it is not something to ignore. Plus, losing too much blood too quickly can lead to shock and nobody wants to faint in their bathroom.

6. Severe Abdominal Pain That Comes Out of Nowhere

Stomach aches are often brushed off as bad food choices. But if you suddenly develop intense abdominal pain that does not go away, reports suggest it could be something much more serious, like appendicitis, gallstones, a perforated ulcer, or even an intestinal blockage. The kind of pain where you cannot stand up straight or move without wincing is not the “sleep it off” kind. Trust your gut, literally, and get checked.

Listen to Your Body’s Alarm Bells

A team of researchers from Kyoto University, Japan, has uncovered hidden immune “hubs” that appear to play a critical role in driving joint damage in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

The breakthrough, published in Science Immunology, sheds light on why inflammation persists in many patients despite existing treatments and may pave the way for new therapies.

Understanding Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that affects millions worldwide, causing painful swelling, stiffness, and damage in the joints. It occurs when the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues.

While medications such as disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) and biologics have improved outcomes, nearly one in three patients continues to respond poorly to current therapies. This new study provides an explanation for that treatment resistance.

Discovery of Immune Hubs

The Japanese team focused on a subset of immune cells known as peripheral helper T cells (Tph cells). Researchers discovered that Tph cells exist in two distinct forms: stem-like Tph cells and effector Tph cells.

The stem-like Tph cells were found residing inside small immune hubs known as tertiary lymphoid structures within inflamed joints. Inside these hubs, the stem-like cells multiply and activate B cells, which are responsible for producing antibodies.

Some of these stem-like Tph cells eventually mature into effector Tph cells, which leave the hubs and contribute directly to joint inflammation by interacting with other immune cells such as macrophages and killer T cells. This continuous supply of effector cells could be the reason inflammation continues in patients even after treatment.

A New Therapeutic Target

By pinpointing the root of the problem, the scientists believe treatment strategies could shift toward targeting these stem-like Tph cells.

“Because stem-like Tph cells can both self-renew and differentiate, they may represent a root cause of the disease,” said lead researcher Yuki Masuo of Kyoto University. Neutralizing or limiting the activity of these cells at their source could potentially reduce the cycle of inflammation and slow down joint damage.

Advanced Techniques Revealed the Mechanism

The team reached these findings using a cutting-edge approach called multi-omics, which combines multiple layers of biological data.

By analyzing immune cells from both inflamed joint tissues and blood samples of RA patients, they created a comprehensive picture of how Tph cells behave. The results showed that stem-like Tph cells predominantly live inside immune hubs where they maintain close contact with B cells.

To confirm their theory, researchers recreated the environment in the lab by growing stem-like Tph cells and B cells together. They found that this interaction not only helped Tph cells transform into effector cells but also activated B cells, further fueling the immune response.

Why This Matters

The study marks an important step in understanding why rheumatoid arthritis is so difficult to treat in some patients. By revealing the role of immune hubs, it provides a more detailed map of how chronic inflammation is sustained in joints. For patients who struggle with current medications, these insights could one day translate into therapies that are more precise and effective.

The discourse surrounding vaccinations has been rampant in the past few years. Many people are questioning the validity of vaccines and why they need to have them. This becomes much more complicated when it involves children. Parents have expressed their concerns and whether their immune systems can handle vaccines. This is why we turn to recommendations by health organizations such as AAP and CDC, however, their new guidelines on the same are now clashing.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has released new recommendations stating that all children ages 6 to 23 months should receive a COVID-19 vaccine. This guidance is part of the AAP's annual childhood immunization schedule and includes recommendations for COVID, flu, and RSV vaccines for those 18 and under. This advice from the AAP stands in contrast to recent guidance from federal health officials.

How Are These Different From Federal Guideline?

The AAP's recommendation comes after Health and Human Services Secretary Robert F. Kennedy Jr. announced that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) would no longer recommend the COVID-19 vaccine for healthy children. The CDC has since updated its guidance to a "shared clinical decision-making" model, which leaves the choice to vaccinate up to parents and their doctors. This difference in opinion highlights a growing disagreement between federal health officials and medical organizations on vaccine policy.

ABC news reports that AAP's president, Dr. Susan J. Kressly, stated that children between 6 and 23 months old are at the highest risk for severe COVID-19. She emphasized that the vaccine can protect these young children, many of whom were not exposed to the virus during the pandemic and therefore have no natural immunity. The AAP aims to provide clear and confident guidance to families who rely on them for medical advice, especially in a time of widespread misinformation.

How Does This Impact Vaccine Coverage?

While the AAP provides its own recommendations, insurance companies often follow the guidance of the CDC's vaccine panel. If the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) does not recommend a vaccine, it could lead to families having to pay for the shots out-of-pocket. It could also mean the shots aren't covered by the Vaccines for Children (VFC) program, which provides free vaccines to eligible children. The AAP is in talks with insurance companies to ensure that vaccines remain accessible as a part of standard preventive care.

Has Vaccine Skepticism Affect People’s Health?

The world is seeing a worrying increase in diseases that were once rare because of vaccines. GAVI, vaccine alliance, explains that this is threatening decades of public health progress and putting millions of lives at risk. In places like the United States and Canada, vaccination rates are dropping, leading to a rise in cases of diseases like measles. This problem is largely driven by the spread of false information about vaccines.

The children in this study were born during or after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused major disruptions to routine medical care. To help fix this problem, doctors should check a child's vaccination history at every visit and strongly recommend the necessary shots. To increase vaccination rates and protect all children from preventable diseases, experts suggest:

• Making it easier to get vaccines by removing financial and access barriers.
• Fighting vaccine hesitancy and the spread of false information.
• Using tools like reminder systems and strong recommendations from doctors to encourage parents to get their children vaccinated.